​Feb 13 2025
Written by Denise Gardner

This may be an unpopular opinion, but I don’t think there is any way to “sell” wine diamonds to the average wine consumer. I’ve heard so many explanations for why they exist in a wine bottle:

• The wine is all natural.
• Wine diamonds are special.
• It’s not glass, it’s acid. 
• We just go with the vintage.

At the end of all the explanations, and sometimes we need those excuses because physical chemistry is hard, the reality is that most American consumers still expect brilliantly clear white and rosé wines. Otherwise, they are likely to believe something is wrong with the wine.
Red wines… little bit of a different story. However, I’m finding more and more red-hybrid wine producers cold stabilizing as reassurance policies for their wines. 
So let’s talk about cold stabilization. Through my experience, I’ve found winemakers cite misnomers, short cuts, and misunderstandings centralized around the cold stabilization process. Hopefully, this will debunk a few of those myths for you!

Why do wines need to be cold stabilized?
To be clear, I’m talking about grape-based wines in relation to cold stability. Grapes – as a fruit – contain tartaric acid as its primary organic acid. Given the high concentration of this unique acid in [grape] wine, it acts as a component to form the solid, insoluble crystal, potassium bitartrate. 
Tartaric acid, the primary acid in grapes, is an organic, weak acid. Weak acids have their protons (abbreviated H+) and anions (abbreviated A-) in an equilibrium. This means the proton and anion can separate and come back together, and that both molecular species can exist at any one time.
The separation or connectiveness of the protons/anions is based on pH. It is this chemical property, that protons separate or come back to the molecular backbone, that gives organic acids their buffering capacity, or resistance to pH changes when acids or bases (alkalines) are added to the wine.
Based on its molecular structure, tartaric acid has two protons that it can hold onto or that can be separated from the primary molecular structure. For this reason, there are three potential molecular forms of tartaric acid:

1. Tartaric (sometimes referred to as H2T in the literature): In this molecular form, both protons are attached to the primary structure of tartaric acid. This is also known as the undissociated form of tartaric acid. In the abbreviation, H2T, the “H2” represents the fact that the two protons are still connected to tartaric acid, or T. In this form of tartaric acid, the acid does not carry a positive or negative charge.
2. Bitartrate (the bitartrate anion, sometimes referred to as HT– in the literature): This is the partially dissociated form of tartaric acid in which one proton is separated from the primary molecular structure of tartaric acid. Here, there is only one “H” in the abbreviation because one proton has been separated and another is still attached to the primary molecular form of tartaric acid. In the bitartrate form, the molecule carries a negative charge, hence the “-“ sign in the abbreviation.
3. Tartrate (the tartrate anion, sometimes referred to as T2- in literature): This is the fully dissociated form of tartaric acid in which both protons are separated from the primary molecular structure of tartaric acid. Note that in the abbreviation, T, there is no “H” to represent the fact that both protons have been removed from the molecule. Furthermore, the primary molecular structure has a “2-minus” charge, which is also noted in the abbreviation.

In wine, the bitartrate anion represents about 50% to 70% of the tartaric acid (Waterhouse et al. 2016). It exists at its maximum concentration somewhere around the pH of 3.60 to 3.65 (Iland et al. 2012). Within this pH range, bitartrate can easily react with the positive ion, potassium (K+), which also naturally exists in wine at various concentrations. (Note: “K” is the atomic symbol for “potassium.”)

When the positive-potassium ion (K+) and negative-bitartrate ion (HT–) join, they create the insoluble salt, potassium bitartrate, typically abbreviated KHT in the literature. Note that the ionic salt, potassium, is positively charged, while bitartrate is negatively charged. If we all remember that age-old elementary school lesson we were told about birds and bees, we’ll recall this basic chemistry principle: Opposites attract!
The crystals that we visually see in wine are solid KHT salt precipitates (deposits).

When the KHT falls out of the liquid wine, a drop in wine titratable acidity (TA) is observed. Changes in pH can increase or decrease depending on the wine’s pH prior to KHT’s precipitation (Waterhouse et al. 2016).

Confused about ions separating from a molecular structure? Don’t worry; this is A LOT of chemistry, and it can be confusing. If you find yourself a bit lost in this summary, I recommend becoming a DGW Insider or Elite Member to review the “pH Explained” Winemaking Lesson, which breaks this concept down further while focusing on good pH monitoring techniques.

But wait!
What does tartaric acid chemistry have to do with cold stability?

Simply, everything!
Tartaric acid crystals form in wine and precipitate to the bottom of the tank, barrel, or bottle because of bitartrate’s chemical properties in wine. 

Because the tartaric acid concentration and pH of the wine dictate a wine’s cold stability properties, any time the wine’s acid is changed, the cold stability property needs to be checked. Changing a wine’s acid structure includes directly adding an acidulent or deacidification agent, blending, or adding any additional ingredients that affect the acid of the wine. 

Okay, so the wine has tartaric acid. If the wine is white or rosé, it’s likely that the wine requires cold stabilization. So, just go through the cold stabilization process, right?

Well, not totally. 
The reason why I don’t typically blanket or recommend cold stability processes is because 

1. not all wines require cold stabilization, 
2. the cold stabilization process selected can have an impact on the wine’s quality and longevity, and
3. the effect of a cold stabilization process is unknown. In this last point, this means that just because a winemaker treats a wine with a cold stabilization process, it does not guarantee the wine is cold stabilized. This is because cold stabilization is dependent on the wine’s chemistry at a given temperature. Thus a wine cold stable at 45°F may not be cold stable at 40°F, and so on and so forth.

Let’s break down these 3 points.
In order for potassium bitartrate crystals to form in wine, three things need to be true:

• The wine must contain adequate concentrations of tartaric acid. For grape wines, as this is the primary acid, they do.
• The wine must contain adequate potassium ions. This can be variable from wine-to-wine.
• The equilibrium to produce crystals must be favored. Again, this is variable from wine-to-wine, and the equilibrium is affected by temperature. Cold stability at one temperature does not guarantee cold stability at another temperature. 

Some grape wines are naturally cold stable the entire time through their production. Others, are not. This is why testing to determine if a wine is cold stable is so regularly recommended by winemaking experts. The need of cold stabilization is not a given. 
Again, going through a cold stabilization does not guarantee the wine is cold stable. And, to reiterate, this is why analytical testing is so regularly recommended by winemaking experts and enologists. 

The Effect of the Cold Stabilization Processes

There are several ways a wine can get cold stabilized:

• Natural cold stabilization
• Contact seeding
• Addition of a tartrate inhibitor

Traditional Cold Stabilization

Natural cold stabilization and contact seeding processes are considered traditional cold stabilization operations. Both will have an effect on the pH and TA of the wine after completing the cold stabilization process.
Natural cold stabilization does not refer to putting wines out into the winter cold temperatures. Natural cold stabilization is a defined winemaking operation in which the wine temperature is dropped and held at a consistent temperature for a specific period of time. Again, before calling this operation complete, the wine should be tested to ensure it is cold stable at a specific temperature.
In comparison, subjecting wines to environmental, cold winter temperatures does not often provide the same effect on the wine. The primary reason why subjection to environmental temperatures is variable in its ability to cold stabilize wines is because of the regular and daily fluctuations in temperature that are expected between daytime and nighttime cycles. 

Figure 1 shows variation in crystal formation associated with numerous wines in production. A rapid and sustained chilling process is required to increase the number of nucleation sites (microscopic crevices in the wine that initiate crystal growth) required for crystallization (Zoecklein et al. 1999). During natural cold stabilization operations, this occurs. However, when subjected to environmental temperatures, which are uncontrollable in how the temperature drops and if that temperature sustains, the adequate chilling kinetics may not be reached to sustain full bitartrate precipitation. 










Figure 1: Various forms of tartrate crystals from wine. Photos taken and provided by: Darcy Kline at Allegro Winery


​Furthermore, many winemakers fail to finalize a blend before subjecting wines to environmental temperatures. Later production processes (e.g., wine blending) may render those early “cold stabilization” processes void even if each individual wine had been subjected to the outside cold temperatures. This is due to the alteration of wine pH and acid structure, which influence bitartrate precipitation, upon blending.

In some cases, winemakers may only have access to environmental temperatures. If this is the case for your operation, testing is key to ensure the wine is cold stable. Also, the consideration of tartrate inhibitor additions could be helpful.

Contact seeding is essentially a rapid “natural cold stabilization” process. Natural cold stabilization takes weeks to complete. Wines usually reach cold stability within 10 – 14 days of a temperature being held during the natural cold stabilization process. In contrast, contact seeding takes place over a few hours. With contact seeding, an excess amount of potassium bitartrate is added to the wine with turbulence (mixing) to facilitate the precipitation of potassium bitartrate. At the same time, the wine is rapidly chilled to a specific temperature. After a few hours, the wine is filtered off of the crystals, as contact seeding crystals are small and require filtration removal. Again, going through this process does not guarantee the wine is cold stable. The wine must be tested to ensure cold stability. 

Tartrate Inhibitor Cold Stabilization

Both natural cold stabilization and contact seeding methods change the pH and the TA of the wine. Wines with excessively high TA’s and relatively low pH’s can benefit from these two traditional cold stabilization processes by reducing the TA (sourness) of the wine without negatively affecting the pH. 
However, other wines may not be good candidates for traditional cold stabilization methods. This includes

• wines with pH’s at or above 3.60,
• wines with ideal TA values or sourness perception, or
• wines that undergo a myriad of latent production operations (e.g., sparkling wines).

Furthermore, for wineries dependent on winter temperatures to cold stabilize wines, given the variability in results, further cold stabilization may be required for a given wine. Finally, for some wines that are notorious for crystal development (e.g., Concord), multiple methods of cold stabilization may be required. 

Tartrate inhibitors provide an alternative to traditional cold stabilization methods. A tartrate inhibitor is a substance (ingredient) added to the wine that physically blocks the formation of perceptible potassium bitartrate crystals. Tartrate inhibitors include many gums and some mannoproteins. The most common tartrate inhibitors in the U.S. market include carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and potassium polyaspartate (KPA, known commercially as “Zenith”). Most have maximum allowable doses, which vary by supplier, and therefore, are only effective up to that dose. This means that like traditional cold stabilization processes, the addition of tartrate inhibitors also comes with limitations. 

The use of a tartrate inhibitor “freezes” (pun intended) the acid chemistry. This means that the wine can go from not-cold-stable to cold stable without changing the pH and TA of the wine. 

However, the use of a tartrate inhibitor requires the winemaker to reconsider the operational order of the wine’s production. In traditional cold stabilization processes, a winemaker would conduct those operations ideally after the final blend is determined, but before bentonite fining for protein stability. In the case of tartrate inhibition, it is most likely added in between rough/fine filtration (i.e., plate-and-frame, lenticular, or crossflow filtration processes) and sterile filtration. In other words, the tartrate inhibitor is typically one of the last ingredients added to a wine prior to bottling. This means that the wine must undergo blending, protein stabilization, and some level of filtration before the tartrate inhibitor is added to the wine. Additionally, winemakers must adhere to the mixing and stabilization time requirements of the tartrate inhibitor to reduce any issues with sterile filtration and post-bottling potassium bitartrate precipitation. 

The use of a tartrate inhibitor really requires winemakers to pay attention to production and operational details, including operational order. For those winemakers that miss the details, filtration clogs or cold unstable wines result. 
Furthermore, the addition of the tartrate inhibitor also requires winemakers to pay attention to protein and colloidal (non-crystalline, microscopic components) stability of the wine. Winemakers absolutely have to test the wine for protein stability and adjust protein stability adequately if they plan on adding a tartrate inhibitor to the wine. Failure to do so can result in cloudy wines post-bottling. 

Finally, always remember: the addition of a tartrate inhibitor does not guarantee the wine is 100% cold stable. Like with traditional cold stabilization processes, the wine can be tested to determine its cold stability properties. 

A Wine Consultant’s Observations on Cold Stabilization

My observations as a wine consultant have taught me two things:

• Many winemakers like to rely on recipe-driven operations without considering the impact their decisions will have on a wine. If a winemaker was taught to always use contact seeding on a wine variety, they are likely still doing it today and assuming the wine is always cold stable. In our pursuit to simplify the winemaking process, we have lost the context as to why some wines require cold stabilization and why others do not. Over simplification has simply led to poor winemaking habits. But the decisions to cold stabilize a wine, in addition to which cold stabilization process to choose, should not be formulaic. Winemakers can improve wine quality by choosing specific processes that are ideal for a wine’s quality.

If I put this in context of the vineyard: most spray programs are not 100% standard. Many vineyard managers have to adjust what to spray and when to spray dependent on the variation in annual weather. Vineyard managers are required to observe the parameters that affect the vines (e.g., weather) and adjust accordingly (e.g., what spray and when to spray). Furthermore, they must understand which sprays interact with one another, which can be combined, which need avoided or interval appropriate, et. cetera. 
Winemaking processes are no different than this, but the rhetoric around winemaking often undermines the thought process that goes into winemaking operational decisions. One must observe what is going on with the wine (i.e., measure the chemistry, measure the microbiology) and then adjust the treatment (e.g., cold stabilization) as necessary. 

• Many winemakers fail to have a standardized pre-bottling operational plan or a bottling operational plan. Ignorance truly is bliss here. If one does not know all of the potential things in bottle that are affected by our pre-bottling decisions, then a wine can easily get bottled. Every operational decision in a winery influences the wine’s chemistry, which, in turn, influences the wine’s quality and longevity in bottle. Avoiding the measurement of parameters like potassium bitartrate (cold) stability or protein (heat) stability does not mean that the wine is good to go; it simply means that those parameters are being ignored. This is also true of most wine analytes like dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, titratable acidity (TA), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations to name a few. All of these parameters change in a wine as a wine moves through production. Without recognizing that, winemakers are making decisions blind. 

The most common issue I observe working with winemakers that have “tried tartrate inhibitors” is filtration issues that also lead to potassium bitartrate precipitation post-bottling. This requires me to reorganize pre-bottling and bottling operations for the winery. Most initially work with me indicating that the tartrate inhibitor clogged their filters. The reason for this is often the winemaker did not add the tartrate inhibitor at the appropriate time, they rushed through filtration, did not follow operational recommendations, or avoided recommended stabilization times. 
Pre-bottling and bottling operations can be somewhat standardized for your operation. The order really doesn’t change that much. But things like stabilization time for certain processes or ingredient additions do play a role in when a winemaker should do certain things leading up to bottling.
If this is something that you struggle with, working with a winemaking consultant can provide instant help. For those that are not in the market for a winemaking consultant, consider joining the DGW Insider or Elite Membership programs. Such memberships provide access to pre-bottling timelines and checklists for wines in the following categories:

• White Wines
• Rose Wines
• Red Wines
• Native Variety Wines
• Formula Wines

Furthermore, if you would like a more thorough understanding of cold stabilization, please check out the Winemaking Lessons, “Reviewing Cold Stability in Wine” and/or “Tartrate Inhibition.” DGW also provides downloadable protocols to Members and Clients on “Conductivity for Cold Stability,” and “Bentonite Fining and Colloid Stability Testing” (for when the winemaker plans on adding a tartrate inhibitor).

References
The above post was written with support from the following resources:
ReferencesIland, P., N. Bruer, A. Ewart, A. Markides, and J. Sitters. (2012.) Monitoring the winemaking process from grapes to wine: Techniques and concepts. 2nd Edition. ISBN: 978-0-9581605-6-8.

Waterhouse, A.L., G.L. Sacks, and D.W. Jeffrey. (2016.) Understanding Wine Chemistry. ISBN: 978-1118627808

Zoeckelin, B.W., K.C. Fugelsang, B.H. Gump, and F.S. Nury. (1999.) Wine Analysis and Production. ISBN: 0-8342-1701-5

The views and opinions expressed through dgwinemaking.com are intended for general informational purposes only. Denise Gardner Winemaking does not assume any responsibility or liability for those winery, cidery, or alcohol-producing operations that choose to use any of the information seen here or within dgwinemaking.com.
Written by Denise Gardner · Categorized: Cellar Tools, Winemakers' Blog · Tagged: Cold Stability, Protein Stability, Wine Consulting, Wine Education, Wine Style

Denise Gardner is a winemaking consultant facilitating wineries to improve their production practices, efficiency, quality, and marketability.

Posted by Matteo Lahm on 14th Mar 2025

Fortified wines have long captivated the palates of wine enthusiasts, weaving a tapestry of rich and robust flavors that set them apart from other varieties. This article aims to paint a vivid picture of the production process of fortified wines, as well as the diverse styles and characteristics that make them a true masterpiece. By delving into the history, production techniques, and sensory attributes of fortified wines, this article will guide you through the basics of how to make your own fortified wine and some stylistic overviews. 
Fortified wines, also known as "liqueur wines" or "vin de liqueur," are wines that have been elevated with the addition of a distilled spirit, typically brandy. This process not only boosts the alcohol content of the wine but also infuses it with unique flavors and characteristics that are highly sought after by wine enthusiasts. Some of the most renowned fortified wines include Port, Sherry, Madeira, and Marsala, each with its own distinct production methods and flavor profiles.
The art of fortifying wines can be traced back to ancient times, with evidence suggesting that the Greeks and Romans were among the first to dabble in this technique. The primary purpose of fortification was to preserve the wine during lengthy sea voyages, as the added alcohol helped to ward off spoilage and oxidation. Over time, fortified wines gained popularity for their unique flavors and became a staple in many European countries, particularly in regions with a strong maritime tradition.

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The process of crafting a fortified wine is a harmonious blend of art and science, striking a delicate balance between tradition and innovation. Once the desired level of fermentation has been reached, you will introduce a distilled spirit, typically grape brandy, to the fermenting wine. This halts the fermentation process by vanquishing the yeast and leaves residual sugar in the wine, resulting in a sweeter, higher-alcohol elixir. If you noticed that the process does not include potassium sorbate, good eye. While you can use it, it is not necessary. Raising the ABV to near 20% during fortification will successfully kill the yeast. 
However, you also have the option to let the wine ferment completely dry before fortifying it. This approach allows the yeast to consume all the sugar, resulting in a dry wine with a higher alcohol content. Once the fermentation is complete, the distilled spirit is added to increase the overall alcohol content and enhance the wine's flavor profile. This method is particularly useful for creating fortified wines with a drier, more complex character, as it allows you to have greater control over the sweetness and flavor nuances.
Ultimately, the choice of when to fortify the wine depends on the winemaker's desired outcome and the specific style of fortified wine being produced. Some styles, such as certain types of Sherry, may benefit from a drier base wine, while others, like Port, are typically characterized by their inherent sweetness. By understanding the intricacies of the fortification process and the various options available, winemakers can skillfully craft fortified wines that cater to a diverse range of palates and preferences.
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Fortified wines are typically aged in oak barrels, which bestow additional flavors and complexity to the wine. The length of aging can vary greatly depending on the style of fortified wine being produced, with some wines being aged for just a few months, while others may be aged for several decades. If you don't have a barrel, oak cubes or spirals in a carboy will suffice just fine.
There are several distinct styles of fortified wines, each with its own unique production methods and flavor profiles. Some of the most popular styles include:


- Port: Hailing from Portugal, Port is a sweet, rich, and full-bodied fortified wine made primarily from red grapes. It is typically aged in oak barrels and can be found in a variety of styles, including Ruby, Tawny, and Vintage.

- Sherry: Born in the Jerez region of Spain, Sherry is a diverse category of fortified wines that can range from dry and crisp to sweet and nutty. The production process involves a unique aging system known as the "solera," which involves blending wines from multiple vintages to achieve a consistent flavor profile.

- Madeira: A product of the Madeira Islands of Portugal, Madeira is a fortified wine celebrated for its distinctive caramelized and oxidative flavors. The wine is intentionally exposed to heat and oxygen during the aging process, resulting in a complex and long-lasting wine that can be savored for decades.
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- Marsala: A fortified wine from Sicily, Marsala is typically amber in color and can range from dry to sweet. It is often used in cooking, particularly in Italian cuisine, but can also be enjoyed as a sipping wine.
Fortified wines offer a unique and diverse palette of flavors and styles that are sure to enchant any wine enthusiast. By understanding the production process and the various characteristics of each style, you can better appreciate the complexity and craftsmanship that goes into creating these exceptional wines. Whether enjoyed as an aperitif, a dessert wine, or a key ingredient in a culinary masterpiece, fortified wines are a testament to the rich history and enduring appeal of this timeless winemaking tradition.

​Acids in Wine
Dr. Beth Chang
September 2020

PH is a major contributor to the following factors in wine: 1) microbial stability, and 2) color stability. Lower pH, preferably < 3.6, is important for decreasing risk of spoilage organisms and increasing efficacy of SO2. Likewise, a lower pH increases color stability, and keeps color molecules, i.e. anthocyanins, in the preferred color range of red-purple, rather than purple-brown. In addition, lower pH can increase rates of reactions for various wine components during storage (1,2).

When we measure pH, we are measuring the strength of the acid (or acids) in a solution, in this case: grape juice or wine. Because of the word “acid”, it is easy to assume that pH is useful in evaluating the acidity, or perception of sourness. And yes, pH does have a loose inverse correlation to sourness. However, a much more predictive metric is TA (titratable acidity), which relates to the concentration of acids in juice and wine. TA has a much stronger (nearly linear) and direct correlation to sourness: rising TA concentrations will result in increasingly sour taste (2,3).
Typically, there is an inverse relationship between pH and TA: lower pHs indicate higher TAs and vice versa. However, the two do not ever track in a perfectly predictable way, and there are times when both high pH and high TA can be present simultaneously in a juice or wine. The two major reasons for this are: 1) different organic acids (which are all weak acids) have different buffering capacities, or to put it another way, some organic acids, e.g. tartaric acid, are stronger weak acids than others. This means that their addition or removal will have a larger impact on pH. Therefore, the relative amounts of organic acids will lead to different pHs at the same TA. And 2) higher concentrations of metals (e.g. K+, Ca+2, Mg+2) in the grape juice and wine matrix can result in increased pHs at a given TA because the metals likewise increase buffering capacity, while masking the total number of acid molecules (i.e. total acidity) through hydrogen displacement.2This second cause is particularly pertinent in the mid-Atlantic region (e.g. Virginia), where excessive potassium absorption frequently occurs (4).

When looking at the pH and TA of a must or wine, it’s helpful to have some reference points against which to compare values. Generally accepted industry ranges for must pH would be 3.0 – 3.4 for whites, and 3.2 – 3.4 for reds (1). The resulting final wine product is broadly between pH 3 – 4, with whites on the lower side and reds on the higher side, e.g. 3.3 – 3.7 (2). Typical values for TA (measured as g tartaric / L) are between 5 – 8 g/L. Red wines tend to skew lower than whites because the potassium extracted from the grape skins will cause increased potassium bitartrate precipitation (1).

Measuring pH and TA is essential prior to fermentation and can also be useful well before harvest to get a better picture of overall fruit quality. As grape berries mature, pH will increase and TA will decrease. Factors related to accelerated berry maturation, e.g. warm temperatures, will result in a faster rise in pH and rate of decline in TA (5).

References
(1) Boulton, R. B.; Singleton, V. L.; Bisson, L. F.; Kunkee, R. E. Principles and Practices of Winemaking; Springer US: Boston, MA, 1999. 
(2) Waterhouse, A. L.; Sacks, G. L.; Jeffery, D. W. Understanding Wine Chemistry; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester, UK, 2016. 
(3) Plane, R. A.; Mattick, L. R.; Weirs, L. D. An acidity index for the taste of wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 1980, 31 (3), 4.
(4) Wolf, T. K. Wine Grape Production Guide for Eastern North America; Plant and Life Sciences Publishing: Ithaca, New York, 2008.
(5) Dokoozlian, N. K.; Kliewer, W. M. Influence of Light on Grape Berry Growth and Composition Varies during Fruit Development. 6.

Written by Chad Wasser - Wine Folly


​Wine heat damage is a real concern, and it’s much more prevalent than you might think.
Almost the entire country is hit with a record-setting heat wave and scientists predict heat waves like this one will become more commonplace in the coming years. Red wine is probably the last thing on your mind during bouts of weather like this. Beware! Heat is a wine killer. Temperatures over 70 degrees for a significant amount of time can permanently taint the flavor of wine.​






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Above 80 degrees or so and you are literally starting to cook the wine. Wine heat damage tastes unpleasantly sour and jammy…sort of like canned prunes. Heat can also compromise the seal of the bottle, leading to oxidation problems.

How to Prevent Wine Heat Damage

Don’t Leave Wine in Your Car. 
This is one of the most common scenarios: You run to the store to grab a couple of items for a dinner party. You don’t buy any frozen goods, so you think nothing of running a couple of errands afterwards. Your car (especially your trunk) can reach well above 100° Fahrenheit on an average summer day. Wine will start to cook above 90° Fahrenheit. Treat your wine like a basket of fresh berries or a quart of ice cream. Precious!

• Put the wine in the passenger compartment with you
• Make a wine purchase / pick up at the last stop and go directly home
• If you’re on a wine tasting, carry your purchases into the next winery or restaurant

Your Wine Could Be Damaged Even Before You Get It.
If a store is hot or muggy inside, their wine is not worth buying. Furthermore, how stores receive and handle their deliveries can greatly impact the items' shelf life and quality. If your regular store receives packed pallets of wine and leaves them in the sun for several minutes, the heat can stay trapped in the stretch wrap and cardboard boxes for hours…slow cooking the wine even after it is warehoused. During extreme temperatures, shop from stores that have protected receiving docks or have streamlined their open-air receiving. Here are some precautions for shopping for wine online:

• Don’t be thrifty with ground shipping during temperature extremes.
• Read the wine retailer’s shipping options; sometimes they will hold your wine until the weather improves.
• Buy wine in units of six or more.
• Styrofoam wine shippers are not the devil.

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Even Your House Could Be Too Warm
When the heat is really on, the temperature inside most residences with air conditioning can rise to the low to mid-70s. The temperature in those without AC can skyrocket. Wild temperature fluctuations can damage wine too.

• Store wine in your cellar or basement.
• Keep your wine in the fridge if you don’t have a cellar.
• Avoid putting your wine close to windows or on top of the fridge
• Don’t put wine in an attic or garage as these spaces tend to trap and magnify heat and cool way down at night.

Patio Dining in the Sun
Dining outdoors can be one of the most enjoyable parts of summer. Even during a heatwave, sitting poolside with a glass is a great way to waste the day away. Leave your wine indoors though since the dark glass of the bottle can act like a lens, cooking the wine with a laser of sunshine. The extra trips to and from the kitchen will pay off with a more drinkable, cooler, more refreshing wine.

iDealwine April 1st 2025

Throughout the year, the vines’ growth cycle dictates a series of crucial tasks for the winegrower in the vineyard. As the seasons progress, the vines gently emerge from their winter dormancy and go through different stages, from budburst to flowering, fruit set, veraison, and finally grape ripening. Here’s a closer look at spring, when nature reawakens, and a new vegetative cycle begins in the vineyard.
We have written the months for both the northern and southern hemispheres, respectively.

March/September: ‘Prune early, prune late, nothing beats pruning in March,’ as the French saying goes. Pruning, which begins as early as mid-December, continues through to March in Europe. This would be the equivalent of starting in mid-June and going until September in the southern hemisphere As soil temperatures warm, sap begins coursing through vines unfolding a sequence of events that eventually results in the appearance of fruit on the vines. In March/September, as the weather gets warmer, the first buds start to appear producing shoots. Dotted along the canes, they have a downy, cotton-like protective cover and swell before bursting. This process is known as budburst or bud break.
As climate change disrupts traditional weather patterns, winegrowers have been forced to find new methods to combat late frosts, which now occur when the vines have already started their new growth cycle. With rising temperatures advancing the vine’s vegetative cycle, techniques such as late or double pruning are now employed to delay budburst. Indeed, vines are budding earlier than ever, which becomes a serious concern when spring frosts strike, threatening to ‘scorch’ the delicate young buds. Late frosts have always existed and been a challenge, regardless of climate change. The real issue is early budburst, which makes the young buts far more vulnerable when these frosts occur.
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April/October: As spring progresses, the vines continue to awaken, and budburst advances: buds unfurl, tiny leaves emerge, and both shoots and foliage begin to grow as sap starts flowing through the plant once more. With pruning complete, winegrowers move on to training the vines along wires, securing the shoots horizontally to maintain structure – a process known as tying down or fastening.
Next comes the time for trimming, during which winegrowers can resort to either tipping or topping. Tipping involves removing the shoot tips, stimulating lateral growth and increased vigour, while topping entails cutting back shoots by 30–50 cm to control excessive vigour. This also helps keep the vines upright, making it easier for tractors to pass between the rows. Tipping and topping also encourage the growth of secondary shoots at the base of the leaves, increasing the canopy surface area available for photosynthesis, ultimately stimulating sugar production in the grapes.

A vine’s flowers and developing fruit set

​May/November: In the middle of spring, flowering begins marked by the appearance of delicate blossoms. As they bloom, the flowers lose their first flower caps and then turn into bunches of fruit. This is called the fruit set. Now is the time for tilling and shallow ploughing between the rows of vines. Turning the earth not only aerates the soil but also fosters the growth of natural micro-organisms and avoids the proliferation of weeds. An increasingly pressing question for winegrowers here is whether to practise tilling or grass cover cropping. This is also the time to start spraying the vines to protect them from diseases and parasites. Depending on the pruning method used and the growing conditions, additional buds – beyond those intentionally left during pruning – may develop on certain parts of the vine stocks. Emerging from the trunk or lower part of the stump, these non-fruit-bearing shoots (also referred to as ‘suckers’ by winegrowers) are removed so they don’t consume the vine’s sap through a process known as desuckering.

As summer approaches, it’s time to let the fruit set start to swell. The winegrower’s work will shift to a variety of tasks ensuring the vines thrive through the warmer months.
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by: The Wine Cellar Insider

99% of the world’s wine does not need cellaring. Most wines are in fact at their peak the day they are released. You also need to consider that almost every bottle of wine is purchased either the day it is intended to be consumed or shorty thereafter.
However, a small amount of great wine is produced that ages and improves with age and proper cellaring. The aging and cellaring of those wines are the focus of this article.

Wine is a living thing. It changes with time in the bottle. Depending on the wine, it can take from years to decades for the molecular structure to change. But changes do occur from cellaring wine.
If you have any doubts about this, simply open a young bottle of wine along with the same wine from a previous vintage, perhaps from 15-20 years ago and you can easily see, smell and taste the difference.
If you are going to seriously collect wine, properly cellaring of your wine is imperative. Wine has been aged and cellared for thousands of years. At first, wine was stored large jugs or amphora.
For cellars, the Romans stored wine in the catacombs. However, it was not until the marriage of the glass bottle and cork, which took place during the 1600’s, that the aging and cellaring of wine began in earnest.
Prior to the wide spread use of the cork, bottles were stopped with at first rags and later glass stoppers, which were made one at a time to seal each bottle. This was in the age when bottles were also made by hand, one at a time. The birth of the modern age changed all that.
You do not need to engage in cellaring wine to enjoy it. The truth is, most people like the taste, fragrance and texture found in young wine. There is nothing wrong with that approach. All wine appreciation is a matter of personal taste.

I love a lot of young wine. For example, 2009 Bordeaux from many producers, especially from the various satellite appellations are already quite tasty. Some of the best wines from Pomerol and St. Emilion in 2009 have also been stunning since the day they were released.
I adore young Chateauneuf du Pape as well as many of the best wines from the Napa Valley in California. Sauternes in its youth is one of the great taste treats available. Yet, at least for my palate, they all fall by the wayside when a properly cellared and aged wine is available.

Today, with our fast paced, instant world where everything takes place quicker than ever before, the concept of buying and cellaring wine to drink 10, 15, 20 or more years later is an archaic concept to most people. There are countless inventions in the marketplace all claiming to age a wine in minutes, right before your very own palate. Trust me. They do not work.
There is no substitute for time. That is why the auction marketplace places such a massive premium on properly cellared Bordeaux or other wines. People buying those wines understand that with time, a wine becomes more than what it was when it was originally placed in the bottle.
Older, properly aged and cellared wine is more than bottled history, although there is value in the history discovered with aged wine as well.
Fortunately, the best producers of age worthy wine are making wine that requires less time in the cellar these days. One hundred years ago, almost no new, oak barrels were used to age wine before bottling. This produced wine, especially in the best wines from Bordeaux that demanded decades before the tannins were soft enough to allow for a correct, let alone great wine tasting experience.
The wines were just too hard and tough to drink in their youth. In Bordeaux today, most of the top producers use from 30% new, French oak barrels to 100% new, French oak, during the aging process of their wine.
Grapes all over the world are picked today at greater levels of ripeness in the fruit, and when possible, skins, seeds and the tannins, giving a softer, rounder feel to the wines. This allows consumers to enjoy their wines with less cellaring than the previous generation of wine lovers.
There is an ongoing conversation, or argument about the ability of today’s Bordeaux wine to age as long as it did for previous generations. In my opinion, Bordeaux wine today not only will age just as well as it did for previous generations.
Bordeaux wine today is also enjoyable at a much younger age, satisfying the demand from new consumers with a lack of patience. But this is a complex issue that requires its own article.
For experienced wine tasters, the magic in the bottle does not truly display its complexities until it has become properly cellared and aged. The palate texture, flavor profile and levels of aromatic complexities experienced in older, mature bottles of wine offer unequaled tasting experiences that cannot be replicated in younger wines.

The key to aging wine and cellaring wine is temperature control and humidity, along with a lack of light and vibration.
Regardless of the type of wine, and the size of your cellar, those four points are your sole concern. Wines with the ability to age and evolve into something greater than its youth are rare and expensive. Depending on the wine and vintage, it could take years, or often decades for the wine to reach maturity.
With that in mind, it is imperative to cellar your wine correctly. You cannot control the conditions the wine was shipped in. However today, any serious importer takes the correct amount of care in seeing that the wines reach the stores in good condition. But you can control how the wine ages and evolves once you have accepted delivery.

What is the right temperature to store and cellar wine?
Keep in mind, wine is a living thing. Temperature is an important, if not the paramount concern when aging and cellaring wine. The colder the temperature, the longer your wine will take to mature, while increasing the lifespan of your wine.
55 degrees Fahrenheit, 13 degrees Celsius, is considered the optimum temperature for long term aging. At 55 degrees, your wine will enjoy a long, slow evolution. At warmer temperatures, your wine will develop faster and enjoy a shorter life.
However the simple act of raising or lowering the temperature does not necessarily increase or decrease the rate of maturity in your wine. If that was the case, you could simply have a warmer cellar and your wines would reach maturity quicker. The rate at which hydrolysis, meaning the chemical reactions take place when aging a wine adds to the level of complexity in the wine.
In fact, it has been proven that increasing the temperature in your cellar will have an adverse reaction in the quality of your wine. I have tasted more than enough aged wines to know warmer cellar temperatures are detrimental to the development of wine. The old saying patience is virtue is what aging wine is all about.

There are two types of wine cellars used for cellaring wine; active and passive. An active cellar is one where the temperature is controlled by a mechanical device. A passive cellar is when the temperature rises and falls with the change of the seasons.
The best passive cellars are most often, underground allowing for constant cold or cool temperatures. Change in temperature is not a bad thing for wine, unless it happens at a rapid pace, which could loosen the seal of the cork.
This takes place due to the rising and falling levels of liquid in the wine bottle which directly impacts the ability of the cork to retain its seal. When the integrity of the seal is lessened, the increased amount of oxygen allowed to enter bottle quickens the rate of evaporation in the wine bottle.
The transference of oxygen into a wine is a potentially important aspect to the wine aging properly. After all, the cork is porous as is the glass bottle to some extent. It’s the rate of the transference of oxygen that counts. Slow and steady is how the best wines are meant to age.
Wines for extended cellaring should be kept in cooler temperatures. Preferably close to, or under 60 degrees Fahrenheit. As we already mentioned, 55 degrees is considered the optimum environment for cellaring wine.
If you are as an example only planning on cellaring wine for a few years, temperatures closer to 65 degrees should not be a problem. However, if you just purchased a case of 2010 First Growth Bordeaux and plan on opening a bottle after 30 to 40 years, colder temperatures close to 55 degrees is going to provide you with the optimum cellaring environment.

Why is humidity important to cellaring wine?
The need for humidity in the process of cellaring wine is an often argued and debated point. Inside the bottle, the level of humidity is 100%. Shouldn’t the act of laying a bottle on its side provide enough humidity for the purpose of cellaring wine? The simple answer is yes. Sort of.
That is because the humidity inside the bottle only protects the portion of the cork that is closest to the wine. The humidity also keeps the top of the cork as well as the portion of the cork not in touch with the wine in its proper moist condition. This helps the entire cork retain its elasticity and seal.
Bottles with better cork seals are less likely to develop ullage. Ullage is the space pocket between the cork and the wine. The smaller the ullage, the better the wine, because with less space between the cork and the wine, there is less air in the bottle to cause unwanted oxidation.
Personal experience and anecdotal evidence proves that the freshest, youngest tasting wines at maturity come from wine cellars with humidity that hovers between 70% and 80% humidity.
There is no problem with higher levels of humidity for the cork or wine. In fact, that could be beneficial to both the wine and the cork. However, increased levels of humidity can destroy the labels affixed to the wine.
If you are planning on selling your wine, that is going to be a problem, as bottles with damaged labels bring less money. If you are cellaring your wine to maturity for personal pleasure, it will not make a difference.

Does light and vibration matter when cellaring wine?
Light and vibration are both enemies of wine. Strong light can alter the wines delicate chemical makeup. That is the reason for the dark, green glass used most often for red wine.
White wine is not normally aged as long as red wine, which is why the wines are placed in clear or lighter colored bottles. Strong light can also radiate heat, which can also hurt the correct development of a wine.
Vibration is another potential problem. Unwanted vibration could cause chemical reactions that might cause your bottles to develop differently than what is beneficial to your wine.
A few other tips for you when deciding on cellaring wine. If you are buying a full case of wine and it comes in the wood, store it in the wood if you like. The wood case can last longer than the wine.
There are numerous Negociants in Bordeaux with original wood cases of wine more than 100 years old that are in perfect shape. Because most Bordeaux wood cases of wine are close in size and shape, you can easily stack them 10 cases high. But remember, it’s not going to be fun when you want a bottle from the case at the bottom of the stack.
If your wines comes in a cardboard box, that box will eventually bend and disintegrate with time. You might want to consider placing your wine in either wood cases of wood racks if you are planning on long term storage.
Also, if you are buying wine either for investment, or think you might want to sell the wine in the future, save the original wood case. This can add 10% to the price of the wine, especially if the wine is still in the wood case, or if the case remained unopened.

What type of cellar do I need to take care of my wine?
Of course most people do not have underground cellars or the space in their home for a proper wine cellar. Fortunately, numerous options exist to allow for individuals to engage in cellaring wine. Dozens of different companies sell home, properly refrigerated cellars that can hold from 10 bottles up to 500 bottles or more.
Many wine merchants and stores also offer to rent, temperature controlled wine cellaring facilities that range in price. It’s good to look around based on price and reputation.
Remember, most wine will not improve after bottling. But the world’s best wines improve, evolve, soften and develop not only extremely complicated aromatic bouquets, but textures of silk and velvet that are unlike those found in young wine.
Those special wines are the wines we cellar. Cellaring your wines is the only way to ensure perfect provenance. Cellaring wine demands patience. But if you are a fan of older, aged wine, the rewards outweigh the cost in both time and money.

Merlot and Cabernet Franc were more than ready to pick on Hendrick’s family vineyard—some of the clusters had already been decimated by the birds. Photo: Lisa Regalla

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Buckets of Cabernet Franc waiting to be pressed. Though we picked at noon, professional vintners often pick at night to avoid high temperatures. Photo: Lindsey Hoshaw
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By Adventures in Homebrewing
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Why Blend Wines?
On the surface there doesn’t seem to be much to blending home made wines when compared to the rest of the home wine making process. Blending, in itself, is a physically simple task. You take one wine and stir it with another, and the result is a wine that tastes a little like both. Doesn’t seem hard to try.
In reality, blending is a deceptive business that goes beyond the stirring of a spoon. Like quicksand waiting for its next meal, unsuspecting first-time blenders are lured into doom by the easy appearance of blending. If they would have only been armed with a basic understanding of the basic concepts involved, their chances of success would have been greatly enhanced and the ability to capitalize on their previous home wine making efforts magnified.
From a commercial wine making standpoint the primary function of blending is to help the winery keep a consistent product from bottle to bottle. Blending among the various storage vessels of a particular vintage cancels out any variation created that year from a number of sources, such as: differences that exist from more than one vineyard, differences that develop from one fermentation container to the next, different tannin levels between barrels, etc.
The second most common reason to blend wines is to keep the non-varietals consistent from one year to the next. This is a little more involved than blending across a particular vintage. The first requires a limited amount of skill and is almost routine in nature from a general wine making standpoint, whereas the later requires one’s ability to taste and blend their way to a creation that matches what was produced the year before.
Neither of these types of blending is what this article is about. While noble tools for the wine making industry, from an amateur winemaker's perspective blending for these reasons has little value. What we are really interested in is the third reason wineries often blend their wines, that is to improve them, to blend two or more wines and make them into something more spectacular than they each would be on their own; to make one plus one equal at least three.
This is a more masterful side to blending that not only requires an understanding of its mechanics, as do the former reasons for blending, but also requires a wine making palate with some finesse and an ability to envision a flavorful outcome. Some may accelerate more than others in their ability to blend wines, but one thing is for certain, no one can gain this talent without experience.

The Mechanics of Blending
Homemade WineThere is a small part to blending wines that is quantifiable and non-subjective, a part of blending that is completely predictable. For example, if you have a wine with a titrated acid level of 1.10% and blend it with a wine that reads .55%, then the laws of science will easily tell you that upon blending the two wines the resulting creation will have a tartaric percentage somewhere between 1.10% and .55%. And to go a step further, if you know the proportions or the ratio of the two wines to be used in the blending, then through math you can predict exactly what the resulting acid level will be in the blend.
The same prediction can be applied to any measurable feature of a wine: residual sugar, color, alcohol, volatile acid, etc.
Taking measurements allows you to have some control of the outcome. For example, knowing the alcohol level of both wines to be potentially blended gives you the power to control the ending alcohol level. This does not tell you how the finished blend is going to taste, but it does allow you to keep control of the measurable wine making features of a wine when blending.
Knowing the measurable profiles of the wines to be potentially blended is the starting point for any blending challenge. By knowing as many measurable features as possible, you can then begin to determine some blending parameters. This will help you to focus on the blends that are actually possible realities.
The Pearson Square is a visual math tool that can help even the most inept at math determine blending ratios of two wines to achieve an quantifiable outcome. In our above example of blending wines with two different acid levels, one being .55% the other 1.10%, we can use the Pearson Square to determine the ratio needed to obtain any desired acidity level between .55% and 1.10%. In this example we a shooting for an acid level of .70%.
______________________
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| 55 40 |
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| 70 |
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| 110 15 |
|______________________|
The top left corner and the bottom left corner represent the acid level of the two wines to be blended. The center number is the acid level we want to achieve. The two numbers on the right are numbers that you calculate. The 15 is simply the difference between 55 and 70, and like wise the 40 is the difference between 110 and 70.
The 15 and the 40 now represent the blending ratio of the wines that would result in the desired acid level; 40 parts of .55% wine and 15 parts of 1.10% wine. In this case the answers can be reduced by the common divisor of 5 to to be 8 parts and 3 parts respectively. The point here is take measurements and follow through with calculations. Consider this a starting point. Take advantage of what little science blending has to offer, use it to your best advantage for it will be the foundation upon which your palate’s learned blending abilities will have to build.

The Breakable Rules of Blending Homemade Wine
On the whole, blending to improve wines is more like an art than a science, and like any art there are some basic rules, and like art, these rules are allowed to be broken or simply set aside by the contrary opinion of one artist’s tastes.
What follows is a list of “breakable” rules. These are rules that have not only been picked up from reading over the years, but mostly from my own wine making experiences and by observing the results of other winemakers. They are listed in order from the least breakable to the most breakable:
Blend wines that are fundamentally sound. Don’t treat blending as a cure for a sick wine. The wines most suitable for blending are the ones with considerable quality but might have a single correctable defect. Wines that create a whole wish-list of “wants” seldom are candidates for successful blending.
Have a specific reason for blending or have a specific goal you are trying to reach though blending. Don’t just blend because you want to make a wine better, be specific. For example, know that you are blending to adjust a particular fundamental feature of a wine such as acidity, color, and residual sugar. And, also know what measurement you want that feature to read. Or from a more subjective point, know that you are blending to alter a nuance of a wine such as its herbal undertones. Or, you may have a commercially available wine you would like to simulate and that is your ultimate goal.
Do test blendings with small amounts before blending in bulk. If possible have some one help you. Have them mix a variety of blended ratios of two wines, say 4 or 5 different combinations, then you and others can do a blind tasting. Let your favorite blending choice be the guide to fine tune the next set of blendings to be blindly tasted, and so on. Once you feel you have produced the ultimate combination, you might even consider bringing a third wine into the picture. This can obviously go on to an endless number of rounds and with an endless number of wines which brings up two drastically important points. As an amateur blender if you don’t get anything else out of this article get this: as hard as it may seem sometimes, try not to swallow your sips, have a bucket handy to spit in. The second point is observe rule number four.
When you feel you have reached a blending decision, wait at least a day before taking action. This will give your palate a chance to unwind and re-taste the blending from a fresh and sometimes more sober standpoint. Blending is not something to be rushed, but something to be done with solid footsteps and a reasonable amount of certainty. Take a step back and reconsider all the characteristics of the chosen blend in a more holistic fashion. Forget about analyzing it. What is your overall impression as a wine drinker after the first sip or two?
Fine or filter wines after blending, not before blending. If you filter your wines, it is best two wait a few days after blending. Every so often reactions between two or more wines can cause various precipitations to occur. This is for the most part an unpredictable phenomenon and should be just thought of as something that rarely happens and easily solvable through filtration and/or finings.
Blend wines that are from the same year. Blending wines from different years, in general, does not work as well as wines blended from the same year. Wines blended from different years seem to have more instances of precipitation. These types of blends also seem to pull the older vintage back to a youthful harshness even though it may have been almost at its ultimate age for consumption.
Blend wines that are similar in character. It is much safer and easier to blend wines of similar or like type than it is to blend wines that are dissimilar. For example, blend heavy Reds with heavy Reds, just as Cabernet is often blended with Merlot. Or maybe, a little peach wine with some Reisling. But, attempting to blend a Merlot with a Reisling, while possible through luck, is not likely to increase the quality of your cellar stock.

Blending Wines by Design
Understanding “the mechanics” and “the rules” of blending gives the novice blender a much needed path to follow. The blender should observe the breakable rules and use them as a foundation. The blender should take measurements of the wines to be potentially blended so that they can know what cards are being dealt. But the fact can not be ignored that all these “rules” and “measurements” are only secondary to the real issue of, “how does the wine taste?”
To become the best at blending, one must learn how to identify a particular wine’s strengths before they can continue on to improve upon that wine — understand what specific features gives the wine an appealing impression. What makes the wine stand out among the rest? What gives it distinction? Is it the wine’s unusually light, crisp fruitiness? Or, is it the rich, deep berry assertiveness? Or is it the unique way the wine starts on the tongue with its deep berry flavors and ends up cleanly with a light, crisp fruity aftertaste?
Understanding a wines weaknesses is just as important, but usually easier to identify. Quite often it is an awkward aftertaste or a lack of roundness in flavor, making the drinking experience flat or one dimensional and uneventful. It could also be a measurable feature such as acidity or color.
The point is, becoming intimately familiar with a wine is important. It is not until you have a solid understanding of what makes the wine work well on the palate that you can go on to select secondary wines to blend with it that have complimenting characters.
By “complimenting” what is meant is the secondary wine should be one that not only enhances the anchoring features of a primary wine, but also dilutes the weaknesses of that wine. In other words the two wines must fit together, filling in each others voids as well as building on each others strengths. Blending that falls short of this goal is usually a futile event that just ends up trading one mediocre wine for another at best.
Without question there is significant talent in the ability to identify a primary wine stock’s distinctive qualities, but there is even more talent in the ability to recognize other wines that have fitting characteristics that can augment that wine. So often blending can unsuspectingly reduce the wanted features of a wine to a grey, uneventful nothing.

In Conclusion
After having said all this, don’t feel that blending is only for the wine making professional or the few home wine making amateurs that aspire to become professionals. Blending is a valuable tool that any winemaker should learn to utilize.
Start by observing the wines you drink whether commercial or homemade. Try to dissect them in your mind. Mentally peel away each of the wine’s characteristic layers one by one. If you have time, run to the cellar and see if you can’t pick out another bottle of wine that you feel would blend with it well.
Start with this kind of wine making play and in time you will come to find that blending is not as nebulous as you might have thought. Not only is this kind of play helpful in becoming a proficient blender but also a fun and interesting way to appreciate wine.

December 1, 2021 eVineyard by Urska

​Winter harvest and Ice wine production
Long after the traditional harvest season has ended, some winemakers are still patiently waiting for their perfect moment to harvest grapes. They are waiting for the temperatures to drop sufficiently so that grapes will freeze on the vines, and they can start with the winter harvest and production of ice wine. Namely, grapes for ice wine must be harvested and processed while frozen.
Ice wine is a style of dessert wine that is very sweet and balanced by bright acidity. It could be made from white and red grape varieties. If compared to other dessert wines, grapes for ice wines should not be affected by Botrytis cinerea or noble rot.
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Winter harvest
Ice wine growers start preparing for the winter harvest already in autumn with the netting of the grapevines to protect the grapes from birds, wild boar, and other animals that love the taste of sweet grapes. After that, the waiting period starts, namely the temperatures must drop well below freezing for several consecutive days so that water in the grapes freezes. Depending on the wine-growing region (and thus rules that apply), temperatures need to fall to -7°C (19°F) or colder in Germany, and -8°C (18°F) or lower in Canada for 3 – 4 consecutive days so that grapes keep frozen on the vines.

As with all grape harvest, the right timing is everything. Ideally, the temperatures before winter harvest should be between -10°C to -13°C as this provides the optimum level of sugar and flavor in the grapes. Namely, depending on the temperatures, the sugar level varies; for example, if temperatures drop between -10°C and -12°C, the sweetness of grape juice will be in the range of 35°Bx to 39°Bx. The table below shows how grape must sugar (in %) varies based on the temperatures (in °C).

Temperature / Sugar Content
                  -6° / C29%
                 -7° / C33%
                 -8° / C36%
                 -9° / C39%
               -10° / C43%
               -11° / C46%
              -12° / C49%
              -13° / C52%
              -14° / C56%
        Table (wineintro.com):
Percentage of grape must sugar content based on temperatures—the lower the temperature, the sweetest the juice.
The most optimal temperatures for winter harvest are usually reached sometime between December and February, depending on the region, climate, and weather conditions. While in Canada, grapes for ice wine are usually harvested at temperatures between -12 and -15°C, and thus ice wine obtains 9–12% of alcohol. In Germany and other European countries, grapes are harvested at -7 °C or lower, and consequently, ice wine contains a lower level of alcohol, typically 7–9%.
Fun facts:
Grapes starting to freeze at <0°C (<32°F);
Grapes are solid frozen at <-11°C (<12°F);
Most optimum temperature for ice wine pressing is between -8 and -6°C (16-20°F).
Most of the growers harvest frozen grapes by hand and often during the nighttime to guarantee low temperatures. Although ice wine grapes can be harvested with machines, most growers traditionally handpicked them, which is very labor-intensive work. Hence winter harvest workforce needs to be large enough to harvest the entire crop in just a few short hours; namely, the whole process from harvest to press takes around six hours.
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The basic idea of the winter harvest is that the water in the grapes freezes once the temperatures fall way below the freezing point. In contrast, sugar and other dissolved solids do not freeze, which results in a smaller amount of more concentrated grape juice. After the grapes are picked, they must be pressed while still frozen to preserve the high sugar concentration.

Ice Wine production
After grapes are picked for ice wine production, they are lightly pressed into the grape must under much higher pressure than grapes in the regular season. Since grapes are frozen when they come to the press, the ice (water) representing most of the mass is left behind in the press. Thus only a small amount of highly concentrated and sweet juice is extracted. Actually, only about 10-20% of the original crops end up as ice wine.
Then the juice goes into a slow, cold fermentation, which can take from 3 to 6 months, in order to preserve the fruit flavors and characteristics of the grape variety. Since the juice is very sweet, it can become an ideal environment for the yeast, which can stop the fermentation too early. Thus the wine can be of very low alcohol and high sugar level. However, if the process is done right, the ice wine will be intensely flavored, luscious, and balance acidity and sweetness.

Where ice wine is produced?

​The whole process of ice wine production is strictly controlled by government regulations, depending on the grape-growing region. The first ice wine is believed to have been made in Germany in the late 1700s, where they are still producing it under the name Eiswein. The main German ice wine production regions are Rheingau and Mosel. Although Germany is a homeland of ice wine, climate conditions do not allow its production every year due to climate changes.
Today most of the world’s ice wine is made in Canada, where climate conditions are more appropriate for production. Most of the so-called Icewine in Canada is produced in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia regions, where its production is strictly regulated. 
The third-biggest producer of ice wine by dessert wine volume is the United States, where ice wine is produced in several states such as New York, Michigan, and Ohio. Most of the ice wine in the U.S. is made in the state of New York.
Ice wine is also produced in other countries across the globe like Japan, China, Georgia, Moldova, and several European countries – Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

​Which grape varieties are used for the production of ice wine?
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Ice wine can be made from white and red grape varieties. Since ice wine originates from Germany, the most typical grape used for ice wine production is Riesling, while in Canada, Vidal. Other white grape varieties used for ice wine production are Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Pinot Gris, and Sauvignon Blanc. As many winemakers are experimenting, ice wines are also made from varieties such as Seyval Blanc, Kerner, Gewürztraminer, Pinot blanc, and Ehrenfelser.
Ice wines made of white grapes are more full-bodied than red wines and are of pale yellow or light gold color.
While ice wines made of red grape varieties tend to be sweeter and pink or light burgundy color. The most used red grape varieties are Cabernet Franc and Merlot grapes, but ice wine is also made from Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, or Malbec grapes.

Winter harvest, ice wine production and climate change

Making ice wine is anything but easy; winemakers have to deal with predator animals, several unfavorable weather conditions during the grape growth stage, and warming winters. Often unfavorable weather conditions such as hail, wind, rain, and weather conditions favorable for rot development jeopardize grapes even before they get a chance to freeze on the vines. Another problem represents a temperature rise, due to which grapes ripe earlier, while possible winter harvest dates have shifted on later (January, February). Thus grapes need to be on vines longer, which can, in the end, result in grape shriveling instead of the winter harvest.
Winter harvest dates have shifted on later due to global warming if there are any harvests. Namely, in recent years, winemakers had lots of problems with ice wine production due to mild winters. In the warmest year of the century – 2019, there was no ice harvest in Germany, as the temperature during the winter did not reach the requested -7°C for long enough for grapes to freeze. If the warming continues, winemakers fear that ice wine will become even more of a rarity than it already is, and the centuries-long tradition of ice wine production will become a past in Germany.
On the other hand, winemakers from Canada have a little more room, as their microclimate conditions throughout the year are perfect for the production of ice wine, especially in a wine-growing region of Niagara Peninsula. Due to a more suitable climate, Canada took a primate in ice wine production and became the world’s largest ice wine producer. Most of the ice wine produced in Canada originates from Ontario (90%).

Sources:
What is Ice Wine; by 35brix (online)
Icewine Harvest; by Rober A Bell (2020), on Wines of Canada (online)
Everything you need to know about icewine; by Edith Hancock (2018), on The drinks business (online)
Ostapenko, Viktoria & Tkachenko, Oksana & Iukuridze, Eldar. (2016). Analysis of market current state and historical roots of ice wine production. Technology audit and production reserves. 5. 46-53. 10.15587/2312-8372.2016.80653.
All You Need To Know About Ice Wine and Its Unique Facts; Sommeliers choice awards, by Beverage Trade Network (online)
Ice wine; on Wikipeida (online)
Climate change: Warm winter ruins German ice wine harvest, on BBC news, 2020 (online)
Ice Wine: A Special Gift of Nature Impacted by a Warming Globe; by Tom Niziol, on Wunderground, 2020 (online)
Featured image: Flickr

​When you think of celebrating, what are the first things that come to mind? Balloons, confetti, tasty food probably, and of course - bubbly. It is hard to properly celebrate without the pop of a cork from a sparkling wine. That one detail can come with a bit of stress when trying to find the right bottle to choose. Should you go with the classic celebration tool, Champagne? Will another sparkling do? What is the difference between sparkling varietals anyway? Does the price reflect the quality? Sparkling wine is a broad category so here’s some advice to help you pick the right option for all your festivities.
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In the 1500s, carbonation in wine was not considered a good thing. Winemakers worked tirelessly to prevent bottles from re-fermenting and creating accidental bubbles. This process changed in the 17th century when the French began developing methods to purposefully produce the bubbles in sparkling wines we enjoy today, using carbon dioxide (CO2). When wine is put under pressure during fermentation, the CO2 is absorbed creating bubbles. There are two main ways these wines are produced: the traditional method and the Charmat method. The traditional method is used when the still wine is first bottled, then additional yeast and sugar are added during a secondary fermentation. Once incorporated, the yeast ferments the sugar into alcohol until it is dry and generates CO2, creating bubbles within the bottle. The Charmat method was developed during the turn of the 20th century. It allows the second fermentation to take place in a pressurized tank, instead of the bottle.

It is important to know three of the most well-known sparkling wine regions Champagne, Prosecco and Cava. While these wines are all carbonated, there are key details that differentiate them.

Champagne is a very specific varietal of sparkling wine. For sparkling to be classified as Champagne, the wine must be produced in the Champagne region of northern France and meet the winemaking requirements of the region. Champagne has coined the term “méthode Champenoise” in regard to its production process. It goes through the same system as the traditional method. The wines are often made with three different grapes: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier. If you see a bottle with the name “blanc de blancs,” this means it is made exclusively with Chardonnay. When a bottle is labeled “blanc de noir,” it uses Pinot Noir or Pinot Meunier. These grapes are used commonly among American-made sparkling wines as well.

Prosecco is an Italian-made sparkling wine and is produced using Prosecco or Glera grapes. By European Union law, the wine must be produced in northeast Italy, traditionally the Veneto region, to be called Prosecco. This wine typically uses the Charmat method in order to produce a youthful and clean wine. Any vineyard using a minimum of 85% Glera grape can call their wine Prosecco. There are two types of Prosecco. You may find a bottle labeled “spumante,” which means it is heavily carbonated, while others are characterized as “frizzante,” meaning it has slightly less bubbles. In deciding which one to purchase, the choice is completely based on your own personal taste and desires.

Lastly, Cava is a wonderful and flavorful sparkling wine from Spain. Cava is most comparable to Champagne in both taste and production, with the biggest difference being the grapes. Its naming restrictions require it to be made in the traditional method. Commonly a white or Rosé blend, it is typically made with the Macabeu grape. To create Cava Rosé, vintners use the Spanish Garnacha and blend it with Macabeu for a sweeter, fruity flavor. About 95% of all Cava is produced in the Penedès area in Catalonia, Spain, but there are also some popular bottles from Rioja. Cava is very popular in Catalan and Spanish family traditions and tends to pair well with a variety of foods like tapas, seafood and even sushi. The flavor profile has a range, but typically features a more bitter taste than Prosecco, but not as nutty of a taste as Champagne.
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There are plenty of other sparkling wines that do not fall into one of these three categories. Some of the most popular sparkling regions are the United States, New Zealand, Australia and Germany. These countries do not have strict production regulations, which allow for a wider range of flavors, textures and styles. The best way to learn what you like is by allowing yourself to try something new each time you shop.
It is a common misconception that higher price equals better quality when shopping sparkling wines. While it is sometimes nice to splurge on a higher priced bottle for a big occasion, it isn’t always necessary. At the end of the day, you should focus on celebrating with something you enjoy drinking. Ask your tastebuds what they are looking for.

Commonly asked questions about sparkling wine:

1. Where should I store my sparkling wine? Sparkling wines keep best at a cooler temperature. We recommend storing them in a location that is dark and cool and limits direct sunlight. Warmer temperatures cause the carbonation to fizz up and may lead to the cork popping prematurely. Some sparkling wines, like Champagne, should only be stored in the fridge for a short period of time before serving or you risk drying them out.
2. How long can I keep a sparkling wine for? When storing Champagne, keep the bottle on its side in order to keep the cork moist. This will help maintain the flavor. For other sparkling wines, store them up-right to keep the cork dry to prevent spoilage. Once opened, your sparkling wine has about a 3-5-day life span for enjoyment. In order to maximize this, use a sparkling wine stopper to preserve the carbonation.
3. Is sparkling wine a dessert/sweet wine? Some sparkling wines do veer towards the sweeter side. Most are considered an aperitif, meaning they are classified as a “pre-dinner” drink. However, this does not mean there are not varietals intended for post-meal consumption. Sweeter sparkling wines will be labeled “demi-sec” or “dolce” to show they have extra sugar added for a sweeter flavor. In general, we support drinking any form of sparkling wines whenever you see fit. These “rules” are more of a suggestion and should really depend on your personal tastes and desires.
4. Are sparkling wines a healthier choice? In comparison to red or white wines, sparkling wines tend to be healthier. They average less calories per serving size. Additionally, the carbonation can fill you up faster, causing you to consume less. However, it is important to keep in mind the specific type of sparkling wine you are consuming. Bottles labeled “brut” or “extra brut” imply that less sugar is used during production and tend to be considered healthier for this reason. Sparkling wines, as a whole, also tend to also have a lower alcohol by volume (ABV) than other varietals.

Filtering White Wine  7/27/2023

There are two reasons to filter wine: aesthetics and microbial stability. On the aesthetic side, filtration can make a wine more polished both in the glass and in the mouth; often creating a rounding effect that softens the wine’s edges. If your wine is sound with no flaws, then you can decide if you want to further shape your wine by filtering it. However, if you have residual sugar or Malic acid left in the wine, or there was a problem with Acetobacter or Brettanomyces during the ageing/storage period, then filtration is no longer an artistic decision; it becomes the only way to guarantee microbial stability for the wine.  
Pore sizes of filters are measured in microns. Typical winemaking sizes are 5, 3, 2, 1, and .45 micron media. The smaller the holes, the “tighter” the filter is said to be. Filtration’s guarantee of microbial stability comes from the fact that the pore size of filters can be made smaller than the actual yeast and microbes themselves. As the wine passes through the filter the larger microbes become stuck and are removed from the wine. Note: 2-micron filters are used to remove yeast, and .45-microns are needed to remove bacteria.

Filters are rated as being “Nominal” or “Absolute”. A nominal filter will remove most particles that are equal or greater than the rated micron size. An absolute filter will remove all particles larger than the micron rating. Nominal filters are cheaper than absolute ones, and if you are only doing a general cleaning up of the wine, a nominal filter may be all you need. However, if you are filtering to remove either yeast or bacteria, you will need to rely on an absolute filter. Note that an absolute filter is only needed at the final filtration of the wine (usually during bottling, right before the filler to minimize exposing the sterile wine to contamination).  
The effect that filtration has on wine becomes more pronounced as the micron-size becomes smaller. Filtration does remove certain elements from a wine; however, these are often elements that are worth losing. Filtration can stress a wine  and cause it to temporarily “fall apart” right after the process. However, just as with “bottle shock”, filtered wines put themselves back together just fine over the following weeks. 
Filtration set-ups are based on the two different forms of filtration media: cartridges and pads. Cartridges use housings, whereas pads require a “plate and frame” set-up. Both require a pump to move the wine (note that small lots can also be done without a  pump using a keg and pressurized gas if you have this equipment). Cartridges are more expensive than pads because they are more intensive to produce, but they can be cleaned and stored for future use. Pads are cheap but they can only be used one time. Both pads and cartridges are tried and true, and choosing between the two technologies just comes down to personal working preferences: cartridges are clean to work with but they are more expensive and time intensive for maintenance. Pads are economical and somewhat messy, however when you’re finished you just toss them.  

Note: Only cartridges can provide .45 Absolute ratings. In other words you cannot achieve a sterile filtration using a plate and frame set-up with pads.

Filtration Summary

In the end, filtration is a very effective winemaking tool that can be used to gently polish a wine or to make sure it is microbiologically stable. However, the initial investment for the housing(s) or the plate and frame system make it a bit of an economic hurdle for the beginning winemaker. Fining requires no equipment and offers a cheap way to clarify a wine and have control over its tannin profile. Fining is the only way to achieve heat  stability in a wine- as filtration does not remove the proteins responsible for heat instability. The only caveat is that fining is not very selective. You need to be careful about preserving the balance of all of the elements. Finally, keep in mind that the two actions are not mutually exclusive and a  light fining is often done to improve a wine’s filterability.

Posted On: January 27 2010
 By: Stephanie Warren

 The Great Cork Debate: Natural vs. Synthetic vs. Screw Cap for the wine consumer, the Great Cork Debate is nothing if not confusing.  "Experts" sound off about the pros of one and cons of the other, often in complete contradiction with other "experts".   It's easy to find yourself bewildered to immobility in the middle of a wine shop, a natural corked wine in your left hand, a synthetic corked bottle in your right, and a screw cap in front of you.  Headaches like these can drive the most devoted wine enthusiast to consider collecting something else instead...perhaps hard liquor.
As it turns out, the loudest voices in support of synthetic corks and screw caps often belong to those who make their living bottling wine.  And this really isn't surprising, considering that the wine stopper industry rakes in $4 billion a year, and that synthetic corks and screw caps are considerably cheaper to produce than traditional corks.
And they do have a strong argument for getting rid of traditional corks: cork taint.  Every wine collector has experienced that deep disappointment that comes when a bottle that's been carefully aging for years opens up smelling like wet cardboard, due to a chemical compound called trichloroanisole (TCA), which occurs naturally in some corks.  Depending on which study you look at, cork taint affects between 3 and 15 percent of bottles.  Those aren't numbers to be taken lightly, especially when we're talking about the often-expensive wines meant for aging.​
But what these proponents of man-made corks or screw caps usually fail to mention is that there are also significant problems with these cork substitutes.  Here are a few:

• Synthetic corks don't change with their surroundings. The glass that all wine bottles are made of expands and contracts with small temperature shifts in the environment around it.  Natural cork expands and contracts with the bottle, keeping the seal between wine and air consistently snug.  And environmental consistency is the number one rule of wine aging.  A too-loose synthetic cork can let in too much oxygen, ruining the wine by letting the alcohol turn into acetic acid, or vinegar.  A too-tight cork can be tough to remove from the bottle.  The latter is a common problem with synthetic corks: after about 18 months, they can be too tight to extract without a fight.
• A small amount of oxygen is necessary for aging wine. Without oxygen, most of the natural reactions that occur between the hundreds of chemical compounds in a bottle of wine can't happen, and the wine can't develop so-called "aging flavors," notes that can make a Chardonnay "buttery" or a Cab taste of truffles.  Screwcaps and synthetic corks prevent oxygen from getting to the wine.  Sure, this prevents over-oxidation, but so does drinking wine the day it's bought.  In short, a synthetic-corked bottle doesn't really "age"--it's just taking up space in the cellar.
• Screw caps can trap unsavory gases inside the bottle, ruining the wine's aroma. Some of the reactions that occur within an aging wine result in sulfury gases.  These are allowed to dissapate through a natural cork and leave the wine, but are trapped by screw caps, resulting in a rotten-egg smell in the final product.
• Synthetic corks and screw caps could leech chemicals into the wine. We don't yet know how the compounds that make up plastics interact with the compounds in wine, but there are many studies that indicate the harmful effects the ingestion of plastics can have on the human body.
• For once, it turns out that the old way of doing things was more environmentally friendly.
  Cork is taken from cork trees in sheets once every ten years.  This process doesn't harm the tree, and in fact, the cork grows back, making it a renewable resource.  A typical cork oak can continue producing for 200 years.  Cork orchards, with cover huge swaths of land in Span, Algeria, Morocco, Italy, Tunisia, France, and Portugal, provide an environment for flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Iberian lynx, Barbary deer, and the Imperial Iberian eagle.  Farming the cork provides jobs for over 100,000 people.  The cork trees also trap vast amounts of carbon dioxide, lessening pollution.  Almost 70% of the product from these cork farms goes directly to the wine stopper industry.  Without it, the orchards and the protection they provide for people, animals, and the environment, would disappear.
• Steps are being taken to lessen the occurrence of cork taint in natural-corked bottles. Major manufacturers have invested millions in recent years to screening their cork more carefully and upgrading their production processes.  As a result, cork taint rates have been dropping.

Besides all these practical reasons to refuse to move to synthetic corks, there's a very deep psychological one.  The satisfying "pop" signals that a tradition almost as old as civilization itself is about to begin.  Wine is an organic, breathing substance.  It is its nature to change over time, and to change not in a formulaic way, but in a way influenced by its environment and the skill of those in charge of it.  To lock it behind machine-produced plastic is to lessen the artistry of wine aging.

POSTED BY: STEPHANIE WARREN

​By Wine Market News

There’s a great deal of exact science involved in winemaking, but when it comes to identifying the optimum time to pick grapes there’s no magical equation because there are so many individual factors to consider. Traditionally, some winemakers subscribed to the idea that grapes would be ready for picking 100 days after the onset of flowering, but these days a combination of new technology, evolving tastes and a changing climate means picking can begin at any time during the general harvest season window. Here’s how the pros know when it’s time to strike.

Color
Red grapes will turn from green to yellow to red, while white grapes will appear almost translucent. While it could still take several more weeks for true ripeness to set in, this color change shows that the berries are on their way to readiness. Winemakers will also note the color of stems and seeds – when clusters are ripe these will turn brown.


Size
The grapes will be plump, smooth and fleshy, and the easier they are to pull from a cluster the riper they are. If they’re overripe, they will shrivel.


Flavor
It takes a long time to develop a palate for tasting grapes – after all, winemakers can only practice once a year. However, seasoned professionals will be able to determine optimal ripeness by the grape’s flavor. They’ll be looking for sweetness without any bitterness, and a good balance of sugar ripeness and phenolic ripeness, which refers to the optimal development of grape flavor compounds in the skins, seeds, stems.
Winemakers will also pay careful attention to acidity. Too much acid (a low pH level) can cause the resulting wine to be tart and astringent, but if the acid level is too low (and pH too high) the wine can be flabby and unstructured.
Grape seeds also provide a clue: they’re easily chewable when the grape is ripe.


Vineyard Visitors
Winemakers will often have some idea that grapes are nearing readiness without even having to inspect them, as the increased presence of birds and other critters in the vineyard usually indicates that the fruit on offer is particularly ripe and tasty.


Technology
While the most experienced professionals rely on taste to guide them, many also rely on technology to help out. A portable refractometer, used to measure sugar levels, is a common bit of vineyard kit. Grape sugar is measured in degrees Brix, which is the ratio of sugar to solution in the sugar solution. The more grams of sucrose in 100 grams of solution, the higher the Brix. Sparkling wine grapes are typically harvested when Brix is between 18° and 20°, while grapes for still wines are typically harvested when Brix levels are between 19° and 25°. 
Grapes will also be assessed in labs for pH and titratable (TA) levels. As grapes ripen, pH rises and acids drop, and both together give the winemaker an idea of the wine’s acidity. For pH levels, the target at harvest for a red wine is usually between 3.3 and 3.5. For a white or rose wine, 2.9 to 3.3 is more appropriate. For titratable acid, a good target for red wine is generally 6.5 to 7.5 grams per liter, while white wine and rose can fall between 6.5 and 9 grams per liter.


Weather
Winemakers will follow weather reports with fervor around harvest time. If long periods of rain or heatwaves threaten the quality of the grapes, vineyards might end up picking them before they reach their optimal ripeness rather than risk losing an entire crop.


Other Factors
Once winemakers have taken into account all the above, there are still further considerations. For example, a ripe grape in one part of the vineyard doesn’t necessarily indicate ripe grapes across the whole of the vineyard – some rows of vines might ripen more quickly (or slowly) due to exposure to wind or sun.
The type of grape and style of wine also needs to be factored in. Some varieties take longer to reach optimal ripeness than others, while some styles have their own unique ripeness scale. For example, winemakers producing a sparkling wine in Champagne will prefer their grapes to be ever so slightly under ripe, while a Zinfandel from sun-soaked Spain often fares better if the grapes are a little overripe.
It’s clear then that there’s no magic formula guiding winemakers in their decision to begin picking. Instead it all comes down to chemistry, intuition and as the pros will tell you, lots and lots of experience.

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 April 24, 2023WINES TIL' SOLD OUTWINE 101 WINE FUN
The Best Red Wines Light Enough To Drink in the Summer
 
Wine lovers assume that as the weather warms, they have to say goodbye to red wine until a chill is in the air. This assumption isn’t true! There are ample refreshing and lighter red wines you can drink during the summer. These are the best red wine types, light enough to drink in the summer. 

Lambrusco
Some could argue that Lambrusco is the lightest red wine. This wonderfully bubbly wine is perfect for sipping in the summer. It brings some life to the party! Lambrusco combines the best parts of red wine and sparkling wine. It will undoubtedly liven up discussions with friends and family on the back patio. 

Pinot Noir
Many people think of pinot noir when anyone mentions light-bodied red wine. It’s easily accessible because it’s widely grown. Wine drinkers enjoy sipping on pinot noir for its spice and red fruit aromas. It has lower alcohol content and high acidity, making it ideal for sipping in the sunshine with friends, happy hour, or swinging on the porch swing on a summer evening. 
Zinfandel and Primitivo
Zinfandel and Primitivo are close relatives but are not the same wine. They both originate from the same type of Croatian grape, but Primitivo is generally on the lighter side and comes from Italy. 
Zinfandel and Primitivo are light-bodied red wines with robust jammy profiles that range from spicy strawberry jam to black raspberry. They both tend to have a higher alcohol content—something to keep in mind as you’re choosing which wine to drink by the pool this summer. 

Grenache
One of the most versatile wines is Grenache, although you may recognize it by its other name Garnacha. In Spain, this wine variety is known as Garnacha, a spicy and aromatic wine widely known as a blending grape. This highly acidic, light-bodied red wine would make the perfect wine to drink during a summer picnic—or while you catch up with a friend in the backyard.

Nebbiolo
Do you tend to reach for cabernet sauvignon when you want a glass of red wine? Then you’re going to adore this lighter alternative that still provides the tannin-forward flavor you crave. Nebbiolo may seem intense, but it’s shockingly light-bodied and perfect for adding to the best red wines light enough to drink this summer list. You’ll notice red currant, rose, and pepper flavors as you sip on this wine while watching the sunset on the beach. 

​By keepwinesimple.com
The cycle of activities is year-round when you make homemade wine. From planning to bottling, the wine calendar continues from month to month.
The planning states consist of thinking about the space that you will use to make your wine, the type of grapes that you will use, the home wine making equipment, supplies, etc. It seems that there are a million decisions to be made, but many of them will only have to be made the first year.
Mark Your Calendar
Start Your Engines, Make Homemade Wine!

​June to August
Planning Stage
1. Decide whether you will use home wine making kits or buy grapes.
2. Buy or prepare and wash the tools and fermenter.
3. Buy yeast and other supplies.
4. If you are buying grapes, arrange to rent a grape crusher and press.
August to October
The Crush
1. Bring in the grapes.
2. Begin the crush.
3. Test for sugar content and acidity. Adjust if necessary.
4. Start fermentation process.
5. Punch down the must at least a couple of times a day for about one week.
6. Press the wine.
October to February
In the Cellar
1. Finish second fermentation.
2. Rack the wine.
3. Wait for sediment to settle to the bottom.
4. Rack wine again.
5. If you plan to oak the wine, do so at this time.

​March to April
Tasting, Testing, Blending
1. Taste the wine and test it.
2. Buy bottles and corks.
3. Rent a bottle corker.
4. Make or buy labels.
May to August
Bottling
1. Rack wine again if desired.
2. Bottle wine.
3. Label bottles.
4. Age bottled wine in a cool dark place.

​By keepwinesimple.com
 
Perhaps you have caught the winemaking bug and would like to try making homemade wine. You are not alone. Homemade wine is a growing hobby that could lead to a new vocation. Many professional winemakers started out this way.
Why do we find making wine so romantic? I think that the main reason is that being a winemaker feels close the being a magician. You start out with one nice object (grapes), and through your effort and knowledge you turn it into something wonderful. In any book, nice to wonderful equals magic!

​But Why Make Our Own Wine?
There are many reasons why we find making wine so attractive. Some of them are:
Tradition
Winemaking goes back to the dawn of civilization. Those who turn grape juice into wine are bearers of a body of knowledge that reaches back well into Antiquity. It is an exclusive club that goes back thousands of years.
Knowledge and Understanding
Once you participate in making homemade wine you acquire a knowledge and understanding of wine that can never be acquired in a book, or even in drinking many different types of wine. The insight gained is unique to any wine related experience. 
Camaraderie
Many hobbies are solitary, but wine making is not. There are many activities that cry out for a multitude of hands. I have a friend who started with homemade wine, though now he owns a commercial winery. At various steps in the winemaking process, he sends out a call to his friends and neighbors to help him out. And they all rush in. Perhaps it is the idea of participating in the magic making, or they just like their friend a lot, but he always has an eager group of volunteers.
Personal Satisfaction
Well, that is what hobbies are all about, personal satisfaction. In this case, there is the satisfaction of having produced a good wine, even if it is not the best that Bordeaux can offer. There is also the satisfaction of the enjoyment of the taste, as well as the delight of offering it to your friends and family when they visit.

Feeling Close to Nature
Even if you do not grow your own grapes, there is a natural cycle to producing wine. The wine making calendar is dictated by the harvest and the seasons of the year. Learn how to make homemade wine and you will learn a new skill and participate in an centuries-old activity that will delight your friends.
In addition, you will want to know about the necessary equipment and supplies. Take these lists to your local brew shop. You can also find what you need on the Internet.
Home Made Wine for the Sheer Joy of It!
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Author: We Speak Wine | 0 comment(s)

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When most of us think of the life cycle of a grapevine, images of lush, green leafy canopies and ripening grape bunches leap to mind. While the period from bud break to harvest is the most obvious display of how the fruit of the vine turns into wine, there's much more to it. During winter, a series of essential changes take place in vines. These changes lay down the groundwork for new growth in spring and play a role in determining the success of a new vintage. So just what happens in the vineyard during winter? Let's take a look.

Not So Dormant
After the harvest, temperatures dip and winter begins to settle in. Vines transition into a new phase of their life cycle. Their brightly colored autumn leaves fade from vibrant yellows, oranges, and reds to brown and fall to the earth. Once the grape bunches are picked and the leaves fall, only the trunks and canes of a vine remain. While the barren vines may have you believing that winter is a sort of shut down period, this isn't actually the case. It's true, vines go into dormancy during the cold months, temporarily ceasing all above ground growth, but beneath the surface, things are not so quiet. Instead of directing their energy towards producing fruit or new leaf growth, in winter vines expend their energy into their root systems. Roots will grow, soaking up soil nutrients to keep the vine strong during winter, while simultaneously preparing for spring and the emergence of new shoots.
During the growing season, vines store carbohydrates in the trunk. Stored carbohydrates play a pivotal role come spring. This reserve, combined with the nutrients the roots absorbed from the soil, will give vines the energy they need to grow new leaves and shoots once winter has passed and the ambient temperature reaches to 50 degrees F or above.

Caring for Vines in Winter
Just because the harvest is over doesn't mean there isn't work to be done in the vineyard. Winter is an equally important time for farmers as they use winter dormancy to prepare for the next growing season. Winter pruning is one of the most crucial aspects of vine management. Canes from the previous year are cut back and new canes are chosen from which shoots will grow come springtime bud break. It's a delicate process. This critical step dictates how many buds will emerge come spring and ultimately, how many leaves and grape bunches the vine will produce. And as some of you may know, like aspects of terroir such as climate and soil, the grape yield can be a determining factor in grape quality.

Topic suggested by Chris Rea

A LOT!
 
You may not know it, but the temperature at which your wine is fermented can have a profound impact on your results. Here are four ways that different fermentation temperatures can affect your wine:

1. Yeast Activity

Yeast is responsible for converting the sugar in your grape juice into alcohol. The rate at which yeast can do this is directly affected by temperature. Warmer temperatures will lead to more active yeast and a quicker fermentation, while cooler temperatures will have the opposite effect.

2. Aroma and Flavor

The temperature at which fermentation occurs can also impact your wine’s aroma and flavor. Warmer fermentations tend to produce wines with more fruity aromas and flavors, while cooler fermentations can result in wines that are more floral and mineral driven.

3. Mouthfeel

Another way that fermentation temperature can impact your wine is through mouthfeel. Wines that are fermented at cooler temperatures tend to have a lighter body, while those fermented at warmer temperatures can be fuller-bodied.

4. Alcohol Content

Finally, fermentation temperature can also affect your wine’s alcohol content. Wines fermented at warmer temperatures will have higher alcohol levels, while those fermented at cooler temperatures will have lower alcohol levels.  
 
SOLUTIONS

It is critical to monitor your temperatures throughout the fermentation process. Liquid crystal thermometers are inexpensive and easy to use. Floating thermometers are also a good choice. It is important to note your temperature ranges for reds and whites are different. Reds should ferment between 68-80 F. You can push the window higher or lower but be advised that lower temp’s risk stuck fermentation and higher ones can result in off flavors. For whites, the range is lower between 60-75 F. The low end is also risky for stuck fermentation so if you can maintain the mid-60s, you run less risk and will preserve more floral characteristics.

Sometimes controlling temperature is hard but there are some techniques you can use ranging from simple fixes to more involved endeavors. You can limit fermentation temperatures by placing the fermenter in a cool room, using a cooling jacket, or using a cooling device that goes inside the fermenter. You can also convert a refrigerator with a special thermostat that will give you a very controlled environment. Fermenting on the lower end of the temperature spectrum will give you a higher-quality wine with more complex flavors.

Conversely, if your space is cooler and you want reach higher temperatures, a brew belt is a simple and inexpensive tool to keep your batches warmer. You can also move your fermenter into a corner with a space heater. Even placing your fermenter inside another bucket will help as plastic is a natural insulator. This will give you a more fruit forward result with higher alcohol. 

So, there you have it! Now that you know, be sure to pay attention to the temperature the next time you are making a batch and think about what you like to drink. You can direct your fermentation process to suit your flavor preferences and a few degrees can make a world of difference. Good luck!